嗔秤戻幣�哉膵�云利匈嬉蝕湊蛸賜�塋床四衲���萩晦編報炎嘔囚^泡仟 ̄云利匈��
源平慎弌傍利 卦指云慕朕村 紗秘慕禰 厘議慕尺 厘議慕禰 TXT畠云和墮 〆辺茄欺厘議箝誓匂〇

VB2008貫秘壇欺娼宥(PDF鯉塀哂猟井)-及17何蛍

酔楯荷恬: 梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ○ 賜 ★ 辛酔堀貧和鍬匈 梓囚徒貧議 Enter 囚辛指欺云慕朕村匈 梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ● 辛指欺云匈競何! 泌惚云慕短嗤堋響頼���誅卒亮茂�俊彭堋響��辛聞喘貧圭 "辺茄欺厘議箝誓匂" 孔嬬 才 "紗秘慕禰" 孔嬬��




´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´Page 100´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´

78         CH AP T E R   4   *    L E A R N IN G   AB OU T   D AT A  S TR U CT U R E S�察  �DE CI SI ON S�察  �A N D   L O OP S 



           *Note  An algorithm is a logical set of finite�察�repeatable steps for pleting a task。 The term is usually  

           applied in relation to formal problems such as searching�察�but most�察�if not all puter programs�察�use algo

           rithms of one sort or another。 



                 Before we write any code�察�you need to understand what the depth´first search algorithm  

           does and why you would use it。 The problem to solve is how to get from point A to point B in  

           the most efficient manner。 This problem can be stated generally as�察 �how to solve task A when  

           you have X options。 ̄ 

                 Imagine you are about to drive to work and you are at the front door of your house。 You  

           don¨t know where your keys are�察�and thus you begin a search for the keys in the house。 Of  

           course�察�you try to remember�察�but your memory is not working that early in the morning。 You  

           try to retrace your steps�察�and think of logical places where you could have placed your keys。  

           When you retrace your steps�察�you follow your memory¨s logic。 Simply put�察�your search algo

           rithm is based on your memory¨s suggestion of where the keys might be。 The data structure  

           that you are navigating is the rooms of your house。 Your brain´based search algorithm could  

           create a search pattern like that shown in Figure 4´1。 



           Figure 4´1。 A possible search order for your keys 



                 In Figure 4´1�察�you found the keys in the hall�察�but yet your search algorithm led you astray  

           for a while�察�since you searched the hall last。 The cynic could say that you kept walking around  

           the keys without realizing that they were so close to you。 But this is the crux of the problem�察 �

           because you didn¨t know you developed a search algorithm that would lead you astray this  

           time。 And the same algorithm might not lead you astray next time。  


´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´Page 101´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´

                          CH AP T E R   4   *    L E A R N I N G   A B OU T   D AT A  S TR U CT U R E S�察  �DE CI SI ON S�察  �A N D   L O OP S 79 



*Note  Searching using different strategies is very similar to how you will write puter algorithms。 There  

is no single best algorithm�察�there are only good algorithms that have certain promises。 When you imple

ment an algorithm�察�you need to consider the one that best suits your needs with the least number of  

promises that could cause problems。 



      As Figure 4´1 illustrates�察�you searched in a counterclockwise manner。 Another strategy  

would have been to go clockwise or even in a zigzag�察�or you could have searched some rooms  

multiple times。  

      Let¨s convert Figure 4´1 into a program that has a search algorithm and a data structure。  

The search algorithm will be depth´first�察�and the data structure will be based on a path between  

the respective rooms。 The data structure representing the house in Figure 4´1 is illustrated in  

Figure 4´2。 



Figure 4´2。 A tree structure illustrates each possible action。 Highlighted lines represent a depth

first search�察�and each circle represents a destination。 


´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´Page 102´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´

80         CH AP T E R   4   *    L E A R N IN G   AB OU T   D AT A  S TR U CT U R E S�察  �DE CI SI ON S�察  �A N D   L O OP S 



                 In the tree structure shown in Figure 4´2�察�each node represents a destination that can be  

           reached from a particular place in the house。 From each room�察�you can reach the other room。  

           But this structure is recursive。 From the child bedroom�察�you can reach the living room�察�and  

           then you can reach the child bedroom again。 Even though you navigated down the tree�察�you  

           moved from one room to another and back to the original room。 This is perfectly acceptable  

           from a data structure perspective�察�even though you are probably saying�察 �But that is wrong  

           since rooms will show up multiple times。 ̄ 



           *Note  The tree representation in Figure 4´2 is by no means plete�察�because from each room you can  

           go to the other room。 A full tree representation would be a binatorial explosion。 



                The structure is the way it is because the data structure is a representation of the house。 If  

           you were searching the house�察�would you be able to move from one room to another and back  

           again�拭�Sure you would。 Would you do it�拭�No�察�because your search algorithm would say�察 �Hey  

           dude�察�you¨re repeating yourself。 ̄ And therein lies the trick when writing applications。 You have  

           a data structure and an algorithm that operates on the data structure。 I call this building an  

           application in layers。 You have the lowest level�察�which is an intelligent data structure�察�and a  

           higher level that uses the functionality of the intelligent data structure。 

                 By  intelligent data structure�察�I mean that the structure is always consistent and does not  

           corrupt itself。 In this example�察�a room will not point to itself�察�a room will be present in the struc

           ture only if it is present in the house�察�and so on。 The higher´level algorithm would be responsible  

           for figuring out how to find information in the tree。 It should be smart enough to realize that  

           constantly traveling between two rooms is not going to achieve anything other than wasted  

           time。 

                The search logic is where you go down the tree traversing one room after another。 It is  

           called a depth´first search algorithm because you iterate the tree by going down the tree one  

           level after another。 You stop traversing down the tree once you reach a room that you have  

           already traversed。 Then you go back one level and traverse the room beside the room that  

           you have already traversed。 This could mean the search path found by the puter would  

           be similar to Figure 4´1。 That¨s because the puter is as dumb as you are�察�albeit the puter is  

           not saying to itself�察 �If only I had started in the hall。 ̄ 

                 Realize that there is no magic wand to find the keys for you。 The technique that you and  

           the puter used is called brute force�察�and it is putationally expensive and typically avoided。  

           In this case though�察�brute force is the only real solution�察�because you don¨t know where the  

           keys are!they could be anywhere in the house。 It just happened to be your bad luck that the  

           keys were found in the last place you looked。  

                 Let¨s try to improve the situation。 Imagine for a moment that your keys are tagged with a  

           clapper。 The idea is that with your keys going ^beep�察�beep�察�beep�察院�you will be able to instantly  

           find them and avoid the brute´force searching。 But suppose that the keys are in the upper´right  

           corner of the child bedroom。 Listening for the beeping�察�you think that you hear the keys either  

           in the kitchen or the child bedroom。 So�察�where do you go first�拭 �


´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´Page 103´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´

                         CH AP T E R   4   *    L E A R N I N G   A B OU T   D AT A  S TR U CT U R E S�察  �DE CI SI ON S�察  �A N D   L O OP S 81 



      Which path es first or is the most efficient is a mon problem�察�and you may witness  

it every day if you have a global positioning system ��GPS�� for you car。 A search algorithm is  

monly used in GPS devices。 You punch in a set of coordinates�察�and the GPS device will  

attempt to find the quickest or shortest way。 In the abstract sense�察�the search algorithm the GPS  

makers apply is identical to the search algorithm that we are going to develop in this chapter。 



Implementing User´Defined Types 



The data structure on which the algorithm will operate is a user´defined type。 In the examples  

up to this point�察�we have been using types like Double and String�察�which are CLR´provided  

types。 For the example in this chapter�察�we will define our own type�察�which we will use to repre

sent a node in the tree。 



Declaring Structures and Classes 



A user´defined type can be implemented in one of two ways�此�as a structure or as a class。 An  

example of each is shown in Figure 4´3。 



       A type declaration requireA type declaration requiress a  a CCLRLR In Visual Basic�察�an appropriate 

    conconsstruct ��e。g。�察�truct ��e。g。 SStructure or tructure or CClalassss�� and�� and keyword ��e。g。�察�Class�� opens a block。 

            an identifier ��e。g。�察�Node��an identifier ��e。g。 Node�� To close the block�察�the keyword is 

                                                                 bined with the End identifier。 

                                                                 Everything in between belongs to 

 Structure Node                      Class Node                 the keyword。 So�察�if the keyword is 

 End Structure                       End Class                   Class�察�everything within the block 

                                                                 belongs to the creation of a class 



   Structure is used to define 

   a custom value type ��e。g。�察�

    Double���察�which has some               Class is used to define a custom reference type 

  restrictions and is used only            ��e。g。�察�String���察�which is the most mon type 

       in certain situations                            used for development 



Figure 4´3。 Choices for implementing the Node custom type 



      As shown in Figure 4´3�察�you can choose to create a user´defined type as a value type  

��Structure�� or reference type ��Class�� type。 For the most part�察�developers use a reference type�察 �

because it has fewer constraints and is easiest to use in a general context。 A value type has some  

constraints due its behavior of storing everything on the stack�察�as discussed in the following  

sections。 



Value Type Constraints 



The constraints of using a value type relate to the fact that data is copied。 This has an impact on  

what happens when you embed reference types in value types and use value types as parame

ters to methods。 


´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´Page 104´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´

82         CH AP T E R   4   *    L E A R N IN G   AB OU T   D AT A  S TR U CT U R E S�察  �DE CI SI ON S�察  �A N D   L O OP S 



            The Effects of Copying Data 



            When one  value type is assigned to another value type�察�the contents of the value types are copied。  

            To see this in action�察�consider the declarations in Figure 4´4。 



                                                      Declaration of the identifier 

             Custom value type declaration          value is inside the block�察�so it 

                                                      belongs to the custom type 



                Structure MyValueType 

                    Public value As Integer              Declaration of value is associated 

                End Structure                          with a type identifier ��Integer�� and a 

                Class MyReferenceType                         scope identifier ��Public�� 



                    Public value As Integer 

                End Class 

                                                     Custom reference type declaration 



                      Both custom types declare a variable 

                     that is a value type�察�which is called a 

                    data member because it belongs to the 

                             custom type declaration 



            Figure 4´4。 Declaring custom types 



                 When declaring user´defined types�察�the data members and methods are declared inside  

            the block of code。 You can think of the declaration as the writing on the outside of the box�察�and  

            anything in the block of code as the contents of the box。 The custom types ��MyValueType and  

            MyReferenceType�� as declared in Figure 4´4 do not have a scope identifier。 Think of a scope identifier  

            as defining who has access to your pockets and wallet。 In the case of the types in the example�察 �

            the scope is like saying that your spouse is allowed to peek into your wallet�察�but strangers  

            cannot。 In other words�察�the types cannot be used outside their own namespace。 

                 If the Public keyword had been in front of the type identifier�察�then the user´defined type  

            would be exposed like a wallet that is allowed to be peeked into by the general public。 This means  

            the types can be used by other code。 In the case of the wallet�察�it¨s a bad idea to have unfettered  

            public scope�察�but sometimes public scope is desirable when you are able to control its access。  

           And you do this every time you pay for something by handing a credit card to the cashier。 In  

            that case�察�you are publicly exposing parts of your wallet under your supervision。 In code terms�察 �

            this means making your types public�察�but not necessarily making the data members public。 

                 Next�察�consider the code in Figure 4´5。 It instantiates MyValueType and assigns it to another  

            variable of the same type。 

                 The example in Figure 4´5 illustrates what happens to two variables when one is instanti

            ated and assigned to the other�察�and then the other is modified。 You want to understand how  

            each data type is modified when an interaction with another type occurs。  


´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´Page 105´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´´

                         CH AP T E R   4   *    L E A R N I N G   A B OU T   D AT A  S TR U CT U R E S�察  �DE CI SI ON S�察  �A N D   L O OP S 83 



                                     To create a valid instance 

    Variable var is declared�察          �associated with the 

   but a declaration does not         variable var�察�you need to 

                                                                         Another way to associate a 

      imply a valid instance          allocate the object using       valid instance with a variable is 

                                         the New keyword 

                                                                            to assign the variable 

                                                                       ��e。g。�察�copiedVar�� from another 

                                                                        variable 
卦指朕村 貧匯匈 和匯匈 指欺競何 壘��16�� 家��13��
酔楯荷恬: 梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ○ 賜 ★ 辛酔堀貧和鍬匈 梓囚徒貧議 Enter 囚辛指欺云慕朕村匈 梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ● 辛指欺云匈競何!
梁椣戻幣�� 梁心弌傍議揖扮窟燕得胎��傍竃徭失議心隈才凪万弌誌育断蛍�輌臆惨軼僑〃�燕慕得珊辛參資誼持蛍才将刮襲潜��範寔亟圻幹慕得 瓜寡追葎娼得辛參資誼寄楚署衛、持蛍才将刮襲潜填��