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least let¨s try it and see what happens。
As per the attributes illustrated in Figure 4´7�察�the data structure that is added to the
SearchSolution project is implemented as shown in Figure 4´9。
Name of the city
Public Structure Node
Public CityName As String
Public X As Double X and Y coordinates
Public Y As Double
of the city
Public Connections As Node�┌�
End Structure
Array of cities that are
reachable from the
current city
Figure 4´9。 The data structure for the depth´first search
The data structure is declared as a Structure�察�with the connections represented as an array
of Node elements。 An array of Node elements is formed when one Node contains a list of refer
ences to other Node elements。 Think of an array as a collection of sticky notes that say�察 �Here is
a reference to A�察�B�察�C�察�and so on。 ̄ By having one node reference another node�察�a sort of never
ending tree is created�察�because it is possible to travel back and forth between two cities。 Thus�察 �
the depth´first search algorithm will need to avoid repeating itself。
The Connections data member is an array used to define cities that are the next connection。
To reference another city�察�you can create the reference as an array of Node elements�察�as in the
declaration shown in Figure 4´9。 An alternative is to use an array of strings that contain the
name of the next city�察�like this�此 �
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90 CH AP T E R 4 * L E A R N IN G AB OU T D AT A S TR U CT U R E S�察 �DE CI SI ON S�察 �A N D L O OP S
Public Structure Node
Public CityName As String
Public X As Double
Public Y As Double
Public Connections As String�┌�
End Structure
In this declaration�察�Connections is an array of strings that references other city names and
is what humans would see when they look at a table showing all of the connections for a partic
ular city。 The problem with using strings is that it is inefficient from a puting perspective。
To traverse a tree of cities�察�you would first traverse the city names�察�resolve the city name to a
Node object�察�and then traverse the node。 The string array approach requires an extra�察�unneces
sary step。 So the more efficient and programmatic approach is to have an array of Node instances。
By using the declaration where Connections is an array of Node instances�察�you have both
the city name and available connections in one cohesive object。
Instantiating and Initializing a Node
In previous code�察�you have seen how objects can be instantiated using the New keyword。 To
instantiate a type�察�you always use the New keyword。 After the New keyword is the type that you
want to instantiate�察�followed by a set of parentheses。 A node is instantiated using the following
code�此�
Dim city As Node = New Node�┌�
If you look only at the identifier Node with parentheses�察�you would get the impression that
you are calling a method that has no parameters。 The impression is correct�察�but it is a special
type of method call�察�and that is made apparent by the use of the New keyword。 The method that
is being called is known as a constructor。 Every type has a constructor�察�and it can be used to
initialize the state of the object before being returned to the caller。
In the declaration of Node�察�there is no defined constructor�察�and thus a default constructor
is provided by the CLR。 The default constructor does nothing and has no parameters。
After having instantiated a node�察�we can assign the data members�察�as in the following
code。
city。CityName = ;Montreal;
city。X = 0。0
city。Y = 0。0
Assigning the data members results in setting the city name to Montreal and the coordi
nates to ��0��0��。
This is all fine�察�but shouldn¨t we need to provide some data members when creating a city
node�拭�Does it make sense to instantiate a node without defining the name and coordinates of
the city�拭�Technically�察�a node does not need to be assigned�察�but logically speaking�察�an unassigned
node is quite useless。 And remember that we are working on defining an intelligent data struc
ture�察�thus a Node instance without city name and coordinates is logically not a valid Node。 We
also need to have a root for the Node structure�察�which we will set up as an array。
You can enforce a verifiable correct initial state by defining a constructor with parameters�察 �
rather than using the default constructor�察�as in the following example。 When your code provides
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CH AP T E R 4 * L E A R N I N G A B OU T D AT A S TR U CT U R E S�察 �DE CI SI ON S�察 �A N D L O OP S 91
a constructor�察�regardless of the declaration�察�the default constructor is not generated and is not
accessible。
Public Structure Node
Public Shared RootNodes As Node�┌�
Public CityName As String
Public X As Double
Public Y As Double
Public Connections As Node�┌�
Public Sub New��ByVal city As String�察�ByVal X As Double�察�ByVal Y As Double��
Me。CityName = city
Me。X = x
Me。Y = y
Me。Connections = Nothing
End Sub
End Structure
*Note Nothing is a special value that you can assign to reference variables。 It means that the reference
variable does not point to a real object。 Nothing is a useful value to assign to reference variables in a constructor�察 �
if you don¨t have a meaningful object that they can point to at the outset。
To define a constructor�察�you define a method of type Sub called New�┌�。 And�察�in most cases�察 �
you will use public scope。 The parameters of the constructor represent the three pieces of
information that are required to instantiate a valid state。 Within the constructor�察�the data
members are assigned the values of the parameters。
The defined constructor has parameters�察�which means that to instantiate Node�察�you need
to provide the three pieces of data。 Thus�察�to instantiate Node�察�you need to provide enough data
to make the node logical。 The original instantiation code would not pile�察�so to pile the
code�察�you need to modify the instantiation to the following�此�
Dim city as Node = New Node�─�Montreal;�察�0。0�察�0。0��
The declaration of the node might reference incorrect data�察�but that is not the responsibility
of the intelligent data structure。 An analogy is that a word processor by itself is not responsible for
making sure that the text you write makes sense。 The role of the word processor is to give you
the ability to construct intelligent text。
Examining the Problem of Referencing Using Value Types
As you¨ve learned�察�a value type is stored on the stack�察�and its contents are copied�察�not refer
enced。 When you are trying to build a tree structure with a value type�察�references that were
assigned are not updated with the correct information because values are copied。 This effect
can be demonstrated by going through a longer example of building a data structure of cities
that can be reached from another city。 To start off�察�consider the following declaration of all the
cities and their coordinates。
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92 CH AP T E R 4 * L E A R N IN G AB OU T D AT A S TR U CT U R E S�察 �DE CI SI ON S�察 �A N D L O OP S
Dim montreal As Node = New Node�─�Montreal;�察�0�察�0��
Dim newyork As Node = New Node�─�New York;�察�0�察 �3��
Dim miami As Node = New Node�─�Miami;�察 �1�察 �11��
Dim toronto As Node = New Node�─�Toronto;�察 �4�察 �1��
Dim houston As Node = New Node�─�Houston;�察 �10�察 �9��
Dim losangeles As Node = New Node�─�Los Angeles;�察 �17�察 �6��
Dim seattle As Node = New Node�─�Seattle;�察 �16�察 �1��
This code creates several Node objects that represent all of the cities from Figure 4´7。 The
individual objects are cities without connections�察�and the next step is to connect one city to
another。 We need to allocate and assign the Connections data member。
Having initialized all of the individual cities�察�the next step is to cross´reference the destina
tions of each city。 In Visual Basic�察�the array requires some special understanding。 The Connections
data member is an empty array without any elements。 This is not a problem�察�as long as you
don¨t attempt to reference or assign any of the elements。
You need to allocate space for the array so that you can store the individual cities。 One
solution is to reassign the array to another array that contains elements�察�as follows�此�
montreal。Connections = New Node�┌� ��newyork�察�toronto�察�losangeles��
In this example�察�the Connections data member is reassigned with the contents of another
array that has been allocated to contain the three cities�察�newyork�察�toronto�察�and losangeles。
Think of the array as a basket。 Using this approach�察�the original empty basket has been replaced
with a basket of three items。 These three items can be referenced using three indices ��0 = newyork�察 �
1 = toronto�察�2 = losangeles��。 This solution creates a fixed´content basket。
Alternatively�察�you could create space in the basket and then manually fill the basket�察�as follows�此�
ReDim montreal。Connections��2��
montreal。Connections��0�� = newyork
montreal。Connections��1�� = toronto
montreal。Connections��2�� = losangeles
The ReDim statement takes the array referenced by the data member Connections and real
locates it to a new size。 That size could be larger or smaller than the current size。 In the example�察 �
the size of the array is 2�察�which does not mean two elements�察�but rather that it is an array sized
from the index 0 to 2。
The ReDim statement actually performs a redimension of an array。 The example demon
strates using it on an empty array�察�but you can also use it with an array that contains data�察�such
as to enlarge an array without losing the old data。 To keep the old data in a new array�察�you use
the Preserve keyword�察�as follows�此�
ReDim Preserve montreal。Connections��2��
montreal。Connections��0�� = newyork
montreal。Connections��1�� = toronto
montreal。Connections��2�� = losangeles
However�察�be aware that if the ReDim statement causes an array to shrink�察�you can still lose
data!whatever elements are located above the array size are discarded。 To be safe�察�before
using ReDim�察�you might want to reference the array¨s Length property to verify that you are not
shrinking the array and losing data。
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CH AP T E R 4 * L E A R N I N G A B OU T D AT A S TR U CT U R E S�察 �DE CI SI ON S�察 �A N D L O OP S 93
Using either the fixed´content or ReDim approach�察�you allocate space for the array and assign
the variables representing the cities to the individual elements of the array。 Since Connections
is an array of value types�察�the connections within the connections are not set�察�as shown in
Figure 4´10。
Figure 4´10。 The problem of the missing connections for New York
The problem is that the Connections array for New York is missing。 Of course�察�you could be
logical and say it is missing because the Connections data member for New York has not yet
been defined。 But�察�and it is a big but�察�think about how data is referenced and think about the
behavior summarized in Table 4´1。
Node is a value type�察�and when a value type is assigned�察�the values within the type are copied。
Because the connections for New York have not been assigned�察�the Montreal Connections array
will not contain any connections from New York。 And if you modify the original variable for
New York and its connections�察�those changes will not be reflected in the array of connections
that Montreal has。
At this point�察�you might think this is not a problem�察�but consider the following New York code�此�
ReDim newyork。Connections��2��
newyork。Connections��0�� = montreal
newyork。Connections��1�� = houston
newyork。Connections��2�� = miami
In this example�察�New York has a connection to Montreal�察�and Montreal has a connection
to New York�察�pleting a full circle。 muters would want this ability to fly back and forth
between cities。 But because we are using value types�察�it is not possible to fly back and forth�察�as
illustrated by Figure 4´11。
Figure 4´11 illustrates that recursion with value types does not work。 It shows that there
are connections from New York to Montreal。 But following the connection to Montreal�察�it would
appear that New York has no connections�察�which is blatantly false�察�because we can see the
connection from New York to Montreal。
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94 CH AP T E R 4 * L E A R N IN G AB OU T D AT A S TR U CT U R E S�察 �DE CI SI ON S�察 �A N D L O OP S
Figure 4´11。 Missing connections for New York
When value types are assigned�察�you are copying contents of the value type and thus getting
a snapshot of the state of an object at some period in time。 In essence�察�the code illustrates the
chicken´and´egg problem of defining the connections for a particular city and then assigning
them。 For value types�察�how can you assign the connection of one city to another when the to
be´assigned connection does not exist�拭�The short answer is you can¨t。 The long answer is you
can�察�but it would mean executing an infinite loop�察�which is of no use to us�察�because we want to
do something with the data once it has been assigned。
Switching to a Class to Defi
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