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               o You can subclass only a single class。 



               o You can subclass as many interfaces as desired�察�but they must be declared after the class。 


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Using the New Constraint 



The purpose of the New constraint is to limit the data type to one that has a default constructor�察 �

as in this example�此�



Class Example��Of DataType As ��New����  

    Private _value As DataType 



    Public Sub New�┌� 

        _value = New DataType�┌� 

    End Sub 

End Class 



     Without the  New constraint�察�the bolded code cannot be piled。  

     The constructor that is defined with the New constraint does not take parameters�察�and it  

would seem that this is a bother。 After all�察�you might want to instantiate the type with some  

state。 What you can do is constrain DataType�察�and then instantiate the type using object initial

izers。 For example�察�the following is an interface that has a single property。 



Interface IBase  

    Property Value�┌� As Integer 

End Interface 



     bining the IBase interface and the  New keyword as constraints�察�you could write the  

following code。 



Class Example��Of DataType As ��IBase�察�New����  

    Private _value As DataType 



    Public Sub New�┌� 

        _value = New DataType�┌� With ��。Value = 10�� 

    End Sub 

End Class 



     In the modified example�察�the bolded code instantiates DataType�察�and then using the  

constraints�察�the object initializer that defines _value is possible。 



Using the Class Constraint 



The main purpose of the Class constraint is to indicate whether the  generics type is a value  

type or a reference type。 Here is an example of a type that wants to manage only reference types�此�



Class AssumeReferenceType��Of DataType As ��Class���� 

    Private _value As DataType 



    Public Sub New��ByVal value As DataType��  

    End Sub 

End Class 


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                If you were to declare the AssumeReferenceType using an Integer�察�as shown in the following  

          example�察�the code would not pile。 



          Dim cls As AssumeReferenceType��Of Integer�� = _ 

            New AssumeReferenceType��Of Integer����Nothing�� 



           Nullable Types 



          In �察�Nothing means no value�察�and we all understand what it represents�察�right�拭�For example�察 �

          the following code shows how to use Nothing。 



          Dim value As Object = Nothing 

            

           If value Is Nothing Then 

              Console。WriteLine�─�Yup a Nothing;�� 

           End If 



                The example is obvious and does nothing useful。 If you attempted to call the Object。 

          ToString�┌� method on value�察�an exception would be generated。 So�察�what the code has created  

          is a variable value that references nothing and is nothing。 This works because the example uses  

          a  reference type。 Let¨s see what happens when you assign a value to a value type that we  

          equate to no real value。 



          Dim value As Integer = 0 

                   

           If value = 0 Then 

              Console。WriteLine�─�Yup a Nothing�殖殖拭┌� 

           End If 



                This time�察�value is not of the type Object�察�but is of the type Integer。 And value is assigned  

          a value of 0 to indicate no real value。 Now many of you will be saying�察 �Hey�察�wait a minute! 

          0  Nothing。 ̄ Yet�察�in the programming languages C���� and C�察�Nothing and 0 have the same  

          contextual meaning�察�so it¨s not so outlandish。 

               Visual Basic has a programming construct called the nullable type。 The nullable type solves the  

          problem of knowing whether or not a value type has been assigned。 This is needed when inter

          acting with relational databases。 For example�察�there is no way to indicate that an integer value  

          is not assigned�察�since declaring a value type means declaring a stack variable�察�and it will have a  

          default value。 In other words�察�there is no chance a value type will have a null reference。 

               A nullable type in Visual Basic is used to define a value´type variable that might have a null  

          state。 In the value type example�察�the integer value was assigned a value of 0�察�but a value of  

          Nothing would have been more appropriate。 However�察�value types cannot be assigned a value  

          of Nothing�察�they must be assigned some valid value。  

                To further demonstrate the restrictions of a value type�察�the following is a Structure  

          declaration。 


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Structure ExampleStructure  

    Public value As Integer 

End Structure 



     Here¨s how we might use it�此�



Dim ex As ExampleStructure = Nothing 



     The structure ExampleStructure is defined using the Structure keyword�察�which means that  

ExampleStructure is a value type。 The next line�察�where the variable ex is assigned a value of  

Nothing�察�will result in an action where nothing happens other than resetting the variable ex to  

0。 And as was illustrated earlier�察�0 is not  Nothing。  

     The inability to assign Nothing is odd�察�because structures behave similarly to reference  

types in many ways。 Instantiating a default value of a structure is not always the right answer�察 �

since the data members might not have a default value。 

     The nullable type makes it possible for value types ��for example�察�structures�� to be nothing。  

In Visual Basic�察�you define a nullable type by using the  generics class Nullable or the  

nullable type notation�察�as follows�此�



Dim ex As Nullable��Of ExampleStructure�� = Nothing 



or 



Dim ex As ExampleStructure�拭�= Nothing 



     Using nullable types�察�it is possible to assign a Nothing value to a value type。 To assign a  

value to a nullable type�察�you need to explicitly assign the variable�察�as in the following example。 



ex = New ExampleStructure�┌� With ��。value = 10�� 



     And then to reference the structure!in particular�察�the property value!use the following  

code。 



Console。WriteLine�─┌──�& ex。Value。value & ;��;��   



     The additional reference of Value is the link between the reference type Nullable and the  

value type  ExampleStructure。 



*Note  Nullable types are not intended to be used in conjunction with reference types。 If you attempt to use  

a nullable type with a reference type�察�you will get a Visual Basic piler error。 Nullable types are designed  

for use by value types�察�and there is no other mystical or magical reason to use a nullable type。 



Partial Classes and Methods 



By default�察�whenever you create a type�察�you must declare the plete type in one file and as  

one entity。 For example�察�the following class would need to be declared in the context of a single file。 


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              Class Example  

                  Const BaseValue as Integer = 10 

                  Public Sub AddNumbers��ByVal value1 As Integer�察�_ 

                                        ByVal value2 As Integer�察�_ 

                                        ByRef response As Integer��  

                      response = BaseValue �� value1 �� value2 

                  End Sub 

              End Class 



               The Example class has a single method AddNumbers�察�and the method implementation adds  

          two numbers to a base value ��BaseValue��。 Everything is in a single file。 But suppose you wanted  

          to automatically generate Example�察�and have it generate the data member BaseValue�察�but not  

          the method AddNumbers。 To do that�察�you would need to split the class into two separate classes�察 �

          where one class subclasses the other�此�



              Class BaseGenerated  

                  Protected Const BaseValue As Integer = 10 

              End Class 



              Class Example �此�Inherits BaseGenerated  

                  Public Sub AddNumbers��ByVal value1 As Integer�察�_ 

                                        ByVal value2 As Integer�察�_ 

                                        ByRef response As Integer��  

                      response = BaseValue �� value1 �� value2 

                  End Sub 

              End Class 



               Having one class subclass the other is fine�察�and it works。 The class BaseGenerated could be  

          stored in one file�察�and Example could be stored in another file。 But that approach can be a bit  

          problematic�察�as it implies a specific architecture where one class subclasses the other。 Another  

          approach would be to use the Partial keyword in the context of a class�察�as follows�此�



              Class Example  

                  Const BaseValue As Integer = 10 

              End Class 



              Partial Class Example  

                  Public Sub AddNumbers��ByVal value1 As Integer�察�_ 

                                        ByVal value2 As Integer�察�_ 

                                        ByRef response As Integer��  

                      response = BaseValue �� value1 �� value2 

                  End Sub 

              End Class 



               When you use the  Partial keyword�察�you are defining a partial class。 The plete class is  

          the sum of all the separate partial class definitions for the class ��which could�察�and typically  

          would�察�reside in separate files��。 Thus�察�one part of the class could be autogenerated�察�and the  

          other piece could be hand´coded。  


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                                CH AP T E R   1 6   *    L E A R N I N G   A B OU T   O TH E R   V IS U AL   B A SI C  T E C HN IQ U E S 429 



     A requirement of partial classes is that they must be wholly defined in an assembly。 The  

partial class is of relevance only to the Visual Basic piler�察�and not to the  language。 

     Another usage of the  Partial keyword is to have methods that are defined in one place but  

implemented in another。 Think of partial methods as defining an abstract class method and  

implementing it within the same class。 The following is an example of using a partial method。 



Class Example 

    Partial Private Sub AddNumbers��ByVal value1 As Integer�察�_ 

                                   ByVal value2 As Integer�察�_ 

                                   ByRef response As Integer�� 

    End Sub 



    Public Sub Method�┌� 

        Dim response As Integer = 0 



        AddNumbers��1�察�2�察�response�� 

        Console。WriteLine�─�Added numbers �──�& response & ;��;�� 

    End Sub 

End Class 



Partial Class Example 

    Private Sub AddNumbers��ByVal value1 As Integer�察�_ 

                           ByVal value2 As Integer�察�_ 

                           ByRef response As Integer�� 

        response = value1 �� value2 

    End Sub 

End Class 



     Partial methods are defined in the context of a partial class。 In one part of your class�察�you  

would prefix the identifier  Partial to the method and declare it。 In the other part of the class�察 �

you would implement the method。 

     Partial methods�察�like partial classes�察�have some restrictions�此�



     o They must be declared as a Sub。 



     o They must be declared to be Private。 



     o The methods can be shared and use extension methods。 



     Overall�察�partial methods and classes should not be used as a general programming practice�察 �

because they are intended to be employed in the context of autogenerated code ��such as  

Form1。vb in Windows forms��。 When used in that context�察�partial methods and classes are an  

excellent solution。 

     Partial methods are also useful substitutes for conditional pilation constants�察�because  

if you don¨t implement a partial method�察�any mention of it is removed from the piled class。  

This means�察�for example�察�that you can wrap the implementation with a single #If�察�rather than  

littering many instances of #If in your code。 Here¨s an example�此�


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430       CH AP T E R   1 6   *    L E A R N I N G   A B OU T   O TH E R   V IS U AL   B A SI C  TE C H N IQ U E S 



              Partial Private Sub Display��ByVal message As String�� 

              End Sub 



          #If DEBUG Then 

              Private Sub Display��ByVal message As String�� 

                  Console。WriteLine��message�� 

              End Sub 

          #End If 



              Sub RunAll�┌� 

                  RunFirst�┌� 

                  Display�─�Done RunFirst�┌�;�� 

                  RunSecond�┌� 

                  Display�─�Done RunSecond�┌�;�� 

                  RunThird�┌� 

                  Display�─�Done RunThird�┌�;�� 

              End Sub 



          The Important Stuff to Remember 



          In this chapter�察�you learned about some Visual Basic techniques that are useful in specific situ

          ations。 Here are the points you should keep in mind�此�



               o  You will need to use the arithmetic operators。 Some are obvious�察�others are not。 Take the  

                  time to get used to coding with them。  



               o  Overloading operators makes sense when you need to define custom types and you  

                  want them to support basic operators such as add�察�subtract�察�and so on。 When imple

                  menting the operators�察�be careful to do a logically correct implementation。 



               o  To be able to use methods or properties on  generics parameters�察�they need to be  

                  constrained。 Constraints are an effective way of indicating basic functionality possessed  

                  by  generics types。 Even though you could usually achieve the same results using  

                  interfaces�察�that approach is not as elegant。 



               o  Visual Basic has the GoTo keyword�察�even though some consider the use of GoTo as poor  

                  programming。 Visual Basic has ensured that you can¨t easily shoot yourself in the foot。 



               o  The nullable type is used to indicate whether or not a value type has been assigned。 You  

                  will use this type when interacting with a 
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